SLM Beneish M-Score Calculation
The M-score was created by Professor Messod Beneish. Instead of measuring the bankruptcy risk (Altman Z-Score) or business trend (Piotroski F-Score), M-score can be used to detect the risk of earnings manipulation. This is the original research paper on M-score.
The M-Score Variables:
The M-score of SLM for today is based on a combination of the following eight different indices:
| M | = | -4.84 | + | 0.92 * DSRI | + | 0.528 * GMI | + | 0.404 * AQI | + | 0.892 * SGI | + | 0.115 * DEPI |
| = | -4.84 | + | 0.92 * 1.1103 | + | 0.528 * 1 | + | 0.404 * 1.1021 | + | 0.892 * 0.9923 | + | 0.115 * 0.3844 |
| - | 0.172 * SGAI | + | 4.679 * TATA | - | 0.327 * LVGI |
| - | 0.172 * 1.2881 | + | 4.679 * 0.02489 | - | 0.327 * 0.9863 |
| = | -2.34 |
* For Operating Data section: All numbers are indicated by the unit behind each term and all currency related amount are in USD.
* For other sections: All numbers are in millions except for per share data, ratio, and percentage. All currency related amount are indicated in the company's associated stock exchange currency.
| This Year (Dec23) TTM: | Last Year (Dec22) TTM: |
Total Receivables was $1,746 Mil.
Revenue was 442.999 + 408.866 + 530.685 + 426.779 = $1,809 Mil.
Gross Profit was 442.999 + 408.866 + 530.685 + 426.779 = $1,809 Mil.
Total Current Assets was $6,583 Mil.
Total Assets was $29,169 Mil.
Property, Plant and Equipment(Net PPE) was $130 Mil.
Depreciation, Depletion and Amortization(DDA) was $84 Mil.
Selling, General, & Admin. Expense(SGA) was $372 Mil.
Total Current Liabilities was $0 Mil.
Long-Term Debt & Capital Lease Obligation was $5,228 Mil.
Net Income was 168.443 + 29.365 + 265.065 + 118.518 = $581 Mil.
Non Operating Income was 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 = $0 Mil.
Cash Flow from Operations was -27.141 + -59.35 + -67.034 + 8.888 = $-145 Mil.
|
Total Receivables was $1,585 Mil.
Revenue was 340.788 + 464.613 + 621.061 + 396.957 = $1,823 Mil.
Gross Profit was 340.788 + 464.613 + 621.061 + 396.957 = $1,823 Mil.
Total Current Assets was $8,543 Mil.
Total Assets was $28,811 Mil.
Property, Plant and Equipment(Net PPE) was $141 Mil.
Depreciation, Depletion and Amortization(DDA) was $25 Mil.
Selling, General, & Admin. Expense(SGA) was $291 Mil.
Total Current Liabilities was $0 Mil.
Long-Term Debt & Capital Lease Obligation was $5,235 Mil.
|
1. DSRI = Days Sales in Receivables Index
Measured as the ratio of Revenue in Total Receivables in year t to year t-1.
A large increase in DSR could be indicative of revenue inflation.
| DSRI | = | (Receivables_t / Revenue_t) | / | (Receivables_t-1 / Revenue_t-1) |
| = | (1746.151 / 1809.329) | / | (1584.933 / 1823.419) |
| = | 0.965082 | / | 0.869209 |
| | = | 1.1103 |
2. GMI = Gross Margin Index
Measured as the ratio of gross margin in year t-1 to gross margin in year t.
Gross margin has deteriorated when this index is above 1. A firm with poorer prospects is more likely to manipulate earnings.
| GMI | = | GrossMargin_t-1 | / | GrossMargin_t |
| = | (GrossProfit_t-1 / Revenue_t-1) | / | (GrossProfit_t / Revenue_t) |
| = | (1823.419 / 1823.419) | / | (1809.329 / 1809.329) |
| = | 1 | / | 1 |
| | = | 1 |
3. AQI = Asset Quality Index
AQI is the ratio of asset quality in year t to year t-1.
Asset quality is measured as the ratio of non-current assets other than Property, Plant and Equipment to Total Assets.
| AQI | = | (1 - (CurrentAssets_t + PPE_t) / TotalAssets_t) | / | (1 - (CurrentAssets_t-1 + PPE_t-1) / TotalAssets_t-1) |
| = | (1 - (6582.751 + 129.501) / 29169.468) | / | (1 - (8543.139 + 140.728) / 28811.029) |
| = | 0.769888 | / | 0.698592 |
| | = | 1.1021 |
4. SGI = Sales Growth Index
Ratio of Revenue in year t to sales in year t-1.
Sales growth is not itself a measure of manipulation. However, growth companies are likely to find themselves under pressure to manipulate in order to keep up appearances.
| SGI | = | Sales_t | / | Sales_t-1 |
| = | Revenue_t | / | Revenue_t-1 |
| = | 1809.329 | / | 1823.419 |
| | = | 0.9923 |
5. DEPI = Depreciation Index
Measured as the ratio of the rate of Depreciation, Depletion and Amortization in year t-1 to the corresponding rate in year t.
DEPI greater than 1 indicates that assets are being depreciated at a slower rate. This suggests that the firm might be revising useful asset life assumptions upwards, or adopting a new method that is income friendly.
| DEPI | = | (Depreciation_t-1 / (Depreciaton_t-1 + PPE_t-1)) | / | (Depreciation_t / (Depreciaton_t + PPE_t)) |
| = | (25.11 / (25.11 + 140.728)) | / | (84.175 / (84.175 + 129.501)) |
| = | 0.151413 | / | 0.393938 |
| | = | 0.3844 |
Note: If the Depreciation, Depletion and Amortization data is not available, we assume that the depreciation rate is constant and set the Depreciation Index to 1.
6. SGAI = Sales, General and Administrative expenses Index
The ratio of Selling, General, & Admin. Expense(SGA) to Sales in year t relative to year t-1.
SGA expenses index > 1 means that the company is becoming less efficient in generate sales.
| SGAI | = | (SGA_t / Sales_t) | / | (SGA_t-1 /Sales_t-1) |
| = | (372.32 / 1809.329) | / | (291.293 / 1823.419) |
| = | 0.205778 | / | 0.159751 |
| | = | 1.2881 |
7. LVGI = Leverage Index
The ratio of total debt to Total Assets in year t relative to yeat t-1.
An LVGI > 1 indicates an increase in leverage
| LVGI | = | ((LTD_t + CurrentLiabilities_t) / TotalAssets_t) | / | ((LTD_t-1 + CurrentLiabilities_t-1) / TotalAssets_t-1) |
| = | ((5227.512 + 0) / 29169.468) | / | ((5235.114 + 0) / 28811.029) |
| = | 0.179212 | / | 0.181705 |
| | = | 0.9863 |
8. TATA = Total Accruals to Total Assets
Total accruals calculated as the change in working capital accounts other than cash less depreciation.
| TATA | = | (IncomefromContinuingOperations_t | - | CashFlowsfromOperations_t) | / | TotalAssets_t |
| = | (NetIncome_t - NonOperatingIncome_t | - | CashFlowsfromOperations_t) | / | TotalAssets_t |
| = | (581.391 - 0 | - | -144.637) | / | 29169.468 |
| | = | 0.02489 |
An M-Score of equal or less than -1.78 suggests that the company is unlikely to be a manipulator. An M-Score of greater than -1.78 signals that the company is likely to be a manipulator.
SLM has a M-score of -2.34 suggests that the company is unlikely to be a manipulator.
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